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The Background Of Romans
(thanks to Bruce's commentary on Romans)
Who?
From : The Apostle Paul (1:1)
To : "all who are beloved of God in Rome, called as saints" (1:7)
The church in Rome was most likely Jewish (primarily).
This is borne out in Paul's frequent use of the Old Testament and recurring discussion of Israel.
Many theorize that the Roman church was planted by Jews present at Pentecost as Acts 2:10 mentions them (the only Europeans mentioned).
There were many Jews in Rome (enough that Cicero says they were 'sizable' in 59 BC) due not only to the preeminence of Rome, but also to the presence of freed captives from Pompey's conquest of Judea in 63 BC.
In AD 19 the Jews of Rome were expelled from the city by decree of the Emperor Tiberius, but apparently they were allowed back soon after. They were again kicked out by Claudius (AD 41-54), as mentioned in Acts 18:2 when Paul meets Aquila and Priscilla in Corinth (they were from Rome). Paul's contact with Aquila and Priscilla (he lived with them in Corinth) likely gave him intimate knowledge of the Roman church.
Note : Suetonius notes that Claudius kicked the Jews out of Rome because "they were constantly rioting at the instigation of Christus"; many theorize that this Christus was in fact a 'latinized' version of Christ.
What?
As we all know, a long and important letter.
Canon :
The letter has been included in the canon (without debate) since the earliest times.
There were main variations on the letter that were circulated early on. One was lacking chapter 16 (mostly personal greetings), which isn't surprising; the other was missing chapter 15 as well. This is normally accredited to Marcion, who is reported to have removed the chapter due to material that conflicted with his heresy.
Where?
Paul at this time was staying with 'Gaius' (Rom. 16:23), who is also mentioned in 1 Cor 1:14; Erastus, mentioned in 16:23 as the 'City Treasurer', matches archealogical evidence found mentioning an Erastus as the City Treasurer (menioned by Cliff Bedel in his Romans class at CBC)
Why?
(both of these are hypothoses)
To Establish the Roman Church as a 'Base' for his mission to Spain
Paul states that he wants to see them and 'be helped' by them on his way to Spain (15:22-24)
To Combat Errors (minor reason) :
Paul seems to attempt to set the record straight on his stance toward since in 3:8
When?
Definitely after Jews were allowed back into Rome (Claudius died in AD 54). Bruce dates it to AD 57, others date it to AD 58 - dating most place Paul in Corinth around the end of the 3rd missionary journey.
How?
Through Tertius, Paul's emanuenses (16:22)
The Structure Of Romans
1:1-17 Slave
How would you summarize this section?
Paul greets the Romans, discusses his 'slavery' to the Gospel...the rest of this book is mostly consumed with a discussion of what this 'Gospel' is.

1:18 - 3:20 Sin
1:18-32 Condemnation of obvious sinner
The example we can all agree on that proves the some are sinful and deserve judgement; the rest of the section operates on extending this principle to everyone.
2:1-10 Condemnation (by extension) of all
Note : normal outline is that this section condemns the self-righteous, rather than all...
2:11-29 God's law requires inward righteousness
Does this mean that Gentiles could be saved apart from the Law in the OT?
3:1-8 Purpose of Jew and God's righteousness
3:9-20 Condemnation reestablished

 
How does this section flow from the one before it?
Having mentioned that he is a slave to the Gospel, Paul transitions to a discussion of what this Gospel is that he spreads. Sin is the first component of this discussion.

 
How would you summarize this section?
Everyone is sinful; The rest of the book hinges on the necessity created by this section.
(note : it's interesting that there is not much time spent establishing the specifics of the punishment for sin).

3:21-5:21 Salvation
3:21-3:31 Salvation by faith
4:1-4:25 Abraham as example of faith
5:1-11 Benefits of justification
5:12-21 Adam vs. Christ

 
How does this section flow from the one before it?
Having established our sin (the need for salvation), Paul moves to the solution.

 
How would you summarize this section?
Salvation is available by receiving the sacrifice of Christ by grace through faith, and has always been so.

6:1 - 8:39 Sanctification
6:1-11 Unity with Christ
6:12 - 7:6 Slave to sin/slave to righteousness
Two metaphors : slavery (6:15-6:23) and marriage (7:1-7:5)
7:7-13 Purpose of the Law
7:14-25 Struggle for obedience
Debate - Sanctification
Is this section to be interpreted as :
Paul, pre-salvation
Paul, post-salvation
Israel (One of Jon's professors at Talbot believes this)
8:1-25 Spirit's role in sanctification
8:26-39 Trinity's bond of love to the Christian

 
How does this section flow from the one before it?
This is the logical result of the salvation discussion; after salvation, "What shall we say then? Are we to continue in sin"?

 
How would you summarize this section?
The Christian is now free from Sin to live as a Christian.

9:1 - 11:36 Sovereignty
9:1-5 Paul's affection for the Jews
9:6-24 Predestination
Note : This is a more extensive discussion of the topic in 3:3 (see 9:6). 9:30-33 is also similar to 2:12-29, though from a different angle.
Debate - Supralapsarianism (aka double predestination) vs. Infralapsarianism :
Supralapsarianism : Predestination, then the Fall
Apparently, no 'major' denomination believes this.
Infralapsarianism : The Fall, then Predestination
This is the normal view;
9:25-33 Predestination extended to Gentiles
10:1-13 Israel's zeal misdirected
10:14-21 Israel's obstinance to the Gospel
11:1-36 However, God saved a remnant
11:16-24 Tree of holiness analogy

 
How does this section flow from the one before it?
This transition is a little choppier than most in the book, as Paul is essentially returning to a question that he raised in chapter 2 (and addressed in 3:3).

 
How would you summarize this section?
God's plan for Israel has not been thwarted, but all things happen by His will.

12:1-15:13 Service
12:1-12:21 Christian's role in sanctification
13:1-7 Obey man's law
13:8-14 Obey God's law
14:1 - 15:13 Respect fellow Christians' convictions

 
How does this section flow from the one before it?
This is the logical discussion from the previous material, answering the 'What next?' question.

 
How would you summarize this section?
Let us live according to the salvation we've received, with love for others in all situations.

15:14 - 16:27 Salutations
15:14-33 Strategy for Paul's ministry
16:1-16:27 Salutations from Paul - greeting & exhortation

 
How does this section flow from the one before it?
Paul returns to the theme in Chapter 1 (slave to the Gospel), this time discussing his specific strategies.

 
How would you summarize this section?
My hope is to come to Spain and to spend time with you in person.